Drugs Impact on Human History
Organic substances have been an integral part of human culture for thousands of years. Ancient cultures often used them in spiritual ceremonies, as healing agents, and to increase enjoyment in social settings. However, how they were employed and viewed has changed significantly from era to era and from region to region (Escohotado, 2010; Faupel, Horowitz, & Weaver, 2010; Goodman, Sherratt, & Lovejoy, 2007). For example, mead (an alcoholic drink made from fermented honey) is recorded to have been consumed around 8000 BCE. Beer and berry wines are noted for being first used by humans about 6000 BCE whereas the Sumerian civilization adopted opium in 5000 BCE. Other notable substances include alcohol in ancient Egypt 2000 years earlier than that (3500 BCE), marijuana-based cannabis appearing in China around 3000 BCE., and poppy seed-derived opium by citizens of Switzerland 1000 years prior to that (2500 BCE). Moreover folk medicines associated with plants have become commonplace since ancient times with Palestinian people drinking wine a few centuries ago in 350BCE. This article intends to draw attention to recently popularized drugs distinctive of modern societies.
It has been known for centuries that smallpox is one of the most destructive diseases to humanity. It was as deadly as cancer or heart disease in today’s terms, killing well over 10% of the population and as high as 20% in more populated areas. In the 19th century, the vaccine was developed for smallpox, which was the first disease to be eradicated from the earth. Today, the eradication is considered one of humanity’s greatest achievements.
Morphine was first discovered by German pharmacist Friedrich Serturner in the early 1800s, and just two decades later, Merck began its commercial production in 1827. The drug soared in usage after the development of the hypodermic syringe in 1852. Although individuals may become addicted to the drug, it is nevertheless agreed that the benefits of the painkiller far outweigh the disadvantages of its use. Without this drug, literally millions of individuals with bodily injuries or more complicated medical conditions would have spent their lives in a vast amount of pain. The discovery and use of morphine also led way to a new generation of pain management drugs, some of which can even be purchased over the counter in pharmacies today.
Before its true potential was discovered, ether had been known for over 300 years. However, nobody had thought to use it as an anesthetic. Before the discovery of ether, people literarily used to have limbs amputated while being held down. The drug works by suppressing people’s brain activity to the point that major operations can be carried out without the individual experiencing pain. Over the past few decades, more modern and effective anesthetics have been developed, but ether paved the way, giving it a firm place in the list of the most important drugs to be discovered.
The drug commonly known as aspirin was first manufactured in the form of acetylsalicylic acid when a pharmacist at Bayer AG (1899) used it to help his father with rheumatism. It was previously thought that the pain-relieving properties of the drug operated through its effects on the central nervous system. Nowadays, aspirin is widely recognized for much more than just its ability to ease discomfort, and is one of the most frequently utilized medications. In fact, Bayer AG reported sales totaling $1.1 billion from consumer and Cardio aspirin products in 2015 alone. Besides serving as an effective analgesic for headaches or muscle strain, aspirin is also an imperative medication for preventing heart attacks and strokes due to its functions as a blood thinner. However, not everyone can take advantage of this drug due to its potential side-effects; those with issues such as arthritis or chronic headaches may need to avoid this remedy. In all cases, always check with your healthcare provider before using any medications.
Before the “discovery” of insulin in 1922, patients were given a diet that was near starvation to combat symptoms. In addition to paving the way for future hormone replacement therapies, insulin has saved the lives of countless diabetic patients. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar (glucose) levels. In individuals with type 1 diabetes, the body is unable to produce insulin, a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. Before the discovery and widespread use of insulin in the 1920s, people with type 1 diabetes often died from the disease. Insulin therapy, which involves administering insulin to replace the body’s missing or insufficient insulin, has transformed the treatment of type 1 diabetes and has saved countless lives. The discovery and development of insulin is a significant medical achievement and opened the door for the development of other hormone replacement therapies.
Discovered in 1928 and put to use to cure infections in 1942, this is arguably the most important drug discovery in the history of medicine. It began the era of antibiotics and ushered in advances in therapeutic medicine. In fact, there’s a good chance you wouldn’t be reading this if not for the drug, as it likely prevented an infection in yourself or one of your ancestors.
The drug, born from mold, fights infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. Unfortunately, extensive use of penicillin has built up resistance among some bacteria, leading researchers to search for new antibiotics. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that antibiotic resistance is responsible for more than 2 million infections and 23,000 deaths each year.
Mustard gas was initially used as a chemical weapon in World War I and later tested as a potential cancer treatment due to its ability to kill rapidly dividing cells. However, the severe toxic effects it had on healthy tissue ultimately limited its use. Methotrexate, which was first used to treat a rare form of cancer called choriocarcinoma in 1956, is considered to be the first successful chemotherapy agent. Since then, there have been significant advances in chemotherapy and cancer treatment, including the development of a wide range of drugs and new methods of treatment. Early diagnosis and global healthcare programs have also played a significant role in improving patient outcomes and reducing mortality rates.
Polio is an infectious disease, mainly affecting young children, with no cure. It disrupts the nervous system and can cause paralysis, respiratory failure and death. Ancient Egyptian images showing children walking with canes and withered limbs suggests the presence of polio since the prehistoric times; however, it was not until 1789 when British doctor Michael Underwood first clinically described the condition, and 1840 when German physician Jakob Heine recognized it as a distinct medical disorder. During late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous epidemics saw polio become one of the most feared diseases worldwide — for example, in 1916 a major outbreak in New York City killed over 2000 people, and US’ worst recorded episode in 1952 killed over 3000, leaving many survivors to deal with physical disabilities for the rest of their lives. With no way to combat it, measures to eradicate polio began in 1949, when John Enders et al. succeeded in cultivating poliovirus on human tissue at Boston Children’s Hospital — they were awarded Nobel Prize in 1954. A year later, in 1955, US physician Jonas Salk tested his own experimental killed-virus vaccine on himself and his family as well as 1.6 million children across Canada, Finland and USA whose results were announced. By 1957, annual cases of polio had plummeted from 58,000 to 5,600. By 1961, the number of cases had been reduced to a mere 161. Salk was committed to equitable access to his vaccine and realized that without universal low- or no-cost vaccination, elimination efforts would be futile. To this end, six pharmaceutical companies were granted licenses to manufacture IPV at Salk’s own expense — he took no profit from sharing the formula or production process. In fact when asked in an interview in 1955 who owned the patent for IPV, he famously replied “Well, the people, I would say. There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?”
Before the 1950’s, individuals living with psychiatric diagnoses were limited to lithium or enduring their pain. Its discovery and use represented a turning point in psychiatry and one that led to what some refer as the ‘psychopharmacological revolution’. The presentation of chlorpromazine, more generally known as Thorazine, sparked a transformation in the field, causing an influx of further psychotropic medicinal solutions for anxiety and depression. This drug also enabled those with illness such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder to stay functioning within society rather than being sent to mental institutions. Today, the World Health Organization incorporates it on its List of Essential Medicines — essential medications necessary for basic health systems.
The birth control pill was first proposed by Austrian scientist Ludwig Haberlandt in the 1920’s as a way to prevent contraception. It wasn’t until 1960 that it was approved by the FDA. Searle manufactured the first hormonal pill called Enovid®. Today, it is estimated that 17.5% of women between 15 and 44 in the US use the birth control pill, according to the Guttmacher Institute. Scientists at the University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy are working to create a version for men, which would temporarily sterilize them, but there is currently no timeline for submission to the FDA or for clinical trials.
Life is not easy for people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) — whether they’re kids or adults. Interestingly, the disorder was first described by Sir Alexander Crichton in 1798, but the name, ADHD, was not given at that time. Fortunately, Ritalin® has made it a bit easier to concentrate. Though the medical use of this drug began in the 1960’s, it didn’t come to prominence until the 1990’s. A central nervous system stimulant that treats ADHD and narcolepsy, in recent times it’s been in the news more due to its potential for abuse, as college students might take it ahead of exams and eSports athletes leverage it as an illicit way to improve their game. While surely not intended as a brain-memory enhancer, recent (2014) research published by “Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience” indicates that while Ritalin® can give a transient mental boost, it may also suppress plasticity — making it hard to plan ahead or be flexible in one’s behavior.
Statins are a class of drugs that are used to lower cholesterol levels in the blood. They work by inhibiting an enzyme called HMG-CoA reductase, which is involved in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Lipitor (atorvastatin) is one of the most widely prescribed statins and was first approved by the FDA in 1996. It was developed by Pfizer and was very successful, becoming the best-selling drug of all time, with over $125 billion in sales over a 15-year period. However, like all statins, Lipitor can cause side effects, including muscle pain and damage, and in some cases, it can also increase the production of certain enzymes in the liver.
Zidovudine, also known as AZT, was the first drug approved to treat HIV/AIDS. It works by blocking the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is used by the virus to replicate and infect cells. While it is not a cure for HIV, it was a major breakthrough in the fight against the disease. When used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs, AZT and other combination therapy regimens can effectively suppress the virus and prevent the progression to AIDS.
The cost of treatment for HIV over a lifetime can be very high, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the cost of HIV treatment is $379,000 over the course of a lifetime, however it can vary based on the healthcare system, location and other factors.
Pfizer’s introduction of the highly popular “little blue pill” in 1998 quickly became a huge success. In its first year alone it generated $788 million in revenue, and it now brings in over $2 billion annually. Although not life-saving, Viagra® has certainly been deemed invaluable by many; it has helped to significantly improve the quality of life of millions worldwide. This drug was initially developed to treat high blood pressure but those taking part in clinical trials found another unexpected benefit — erections! The rest is history…
CONCLUSION
This list is exemplary of the advances made in medicine but by no means is it complete. Arguably, more vaccines should be included in the list and some may believe that other drugs deserve more recognition. This list is not in any particular order other than date of commercialization and/or discovery.
Written By: Lawrence D. Jones, Ph.D.
